[Sociology] Noam Chomsky - Media, E-book, do posegregowania
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6AGENDADECEMBER 1998
thought and opinion (especially among the educated
sectors of the public) must be kept strictly in line with
the tenets of the state ideology. But what is this state
ideology, and how would honest discussion of its conse-
quences “lead to action” that might be a “threat to order”?
Free Markets, Democracy & Human Rights
The belief that U.S. power is intrinsically benevolent,
motivated by a desire to do good, underlies mainstream
discussion of U.S. government policy, both foreign and
domestic. From time to time, true believers acknowl-
edge that we do make mistakes, but consider them the
products of good intentions. These assumptions are so
basic that they usually do not need to be explicitly stated,
except in the process of refuting arguments challeng-
ing the dominant way of thinking.
As with his analysis of the role of the media,
Chomsky examines the actual behavior of the U.S.
rather than taking these assumptions on faith. He ar-
gues that we can discern systematic patterns in U.S.
foreign policy that derive from the pursuit of specific
goals deeply rooted in U.S. institutions. Chomsky has
sometimes described these specific goals as the “Fifth
Freedom”, a reference to President Roosevelt’s World
War II-era announcement that the Allies were fighting
for Four Freedoms: freedom of speech, freedom of
worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear.
The Fifth Freedom, “
the most important [is] the free-
dom to rob and to exploit
” (
Turning the Tide,
p. 47).
Within regions controlled by enemy powers, violations
of the four freedoms bring anguished concern and calls
for action. But within the vast regions controlled by the
U.S., Chomsky argues, “
it is only when the fifth and
fundamental freedom is threatened that a sudden
and short-lived concern for other forms of freedom
manifests itself
” (
Turning the Tide
, p. 47).
One of Chomsky’s sources of evidence for this claim
relates to human rights. Conventional wisdom holds that
U.S. foreign policy is dedicated to preserving and ex-
tending human rights around the world. However,
Chomsky and coauthor Edward Herman (an economist
at the University of Pennsylvania) conclude that “
the
deterioration of the human rights climate in some
Free World dependencies [including Brazil, Iran,
Guatemala, and Chile; after US-sponsored coups]
correlates rather closely with an increase in US aid
and support
” (
The Washington Connection and Third
World Fascism
, p. 43). These findings build on similar
results from earlier studies by Lars Schoultz, a leading
academic specialist on the relation between human
rights and US foreign policy in Latin America (Schoultz,
Comparative Politics
, 1981, cited in
Turning the Tide
,
pp. 157-58). One possible explanation of these patterns
is that the U.S. government simply hates human rights.
Chomsky and Herman’s alternative explanation brings
in another factor— the investment climate; related to
tax laws of a country, to the possibility of investor profit,
and to the nature and scale of government controls on
wages and trade unions, among other things. They note
“
For most of the sample countries,
US-controlled aid
has been positively related to investment climate and
inversely related to the maintenance of a democratic
order and human rights
” (
The Washington Connec-
tion and Third World Fascism
, p. 44). To put it crudely,
countries with governments that are willing and able to
kill union organizers and others who work for the rights
of the poor and oppressed, generally offer the prospect
of more stable profits than countries with governments
concerned about the well-being of their population—
the concern is for the Fifth Freedom, not human rights.
For a glimpse into what U.S. policy planners tell one
another about such things, as opposed to what they tell
us, see the sidebar
For Your Leaders’ Eyes Only
.
What about the ‘communist threat’, often raised as
an explanation for such policies, when they are at all
acknowledged? Chomsky cites a 1955 study by the
Woodrow Wilson Foundation and the National Plan-
ning Association which concluded that the primary
Noam Chomsky on
Media
Politics
,
Action
by Aaron Stark
On December 7, 1998, Noam Chomsky will be 70 years
old. Alternately ignored and reviled in much of the
mainstream national discourse, Chomsky’s critiques of
U.S. society address crucial questions of ideology and
power; of propaganda and of the institutional roots of
our society’s ugliest flaws. His prodigious work has
inspired several generations of activists, with its high
regard for evidence and its power to induce both horror
and hope in readers. Much of Chomsky’s work has been
an examination of the role of intellectuals—their rela-
tions with and typical subservience to institutions of
state and private capital. Chomsky’s more hopeful writ-
ings, however, recall old notions of freedom and jus-
tice latent within human nature itself. These different
aspects of Chomsky’s thought are usually not balanced
equally within any particular work. But it’s necessary
to keep them both in mind—horror and shame evoked
by crimes committed in our name, and hope in the pos-
sibility of a society more worthy of the label ‘human’.
Propaganda
in a Free Press
The “Propaganda Model”
Chomsky has helped develop and
defend exhibits several “filters”
preventing sustained dissent from
reaching the public even in a
somewhat democratic society.
Entrance cost into the media market:
Labor newspapers and other grassroots
media once reached large audiences. But
dominant radio and TV licenses have
literally been handed over to corporate
titans, and ‘advertiser strikes’ have made
independent newspapers more costly to the
reader than their corporate competitors.
Result: most global media is consolidated in
the hands of a few mammoth corporations, an
interlocking cartel representing huge
armsmakers—like General Electric (NBC) and
Westinghouse (CBS)—and labor abusers—
like Disney (ABC) [see Reader Action, page
21. And as with most hierarchically-organized
businesses, editors and reporters quickly learn
what will and won’t please the boss.
Corporate Media
Some of Chomsky’s most valuable insights into con-
temporary society come from his analysis of the role of
mass media (major newspapers like the New York Times
and the Washington Post) in a democracy. Some praise
the media for service to the public, for devotion to truth,
and for independence. Some even say the media go too
far in their search for truth—one acclaimed review of
media coverage of the Vietnam War argued that the
media’s alleged anti-government bias effectively lost
the war for the U.S. (
Necessary Illusions
, p. 6). But if
like Chomsky one examines the structure of media in-
stitutions and their actual day-to-day performance, a
very different picture emerges. Chomsky finds that with
few exceptions, the mass media confine themselves to
presenting a picture of the world skewed in favor of
wealthy and powerful elites. The debate over policies
and issues appearing in major media is thus narrowly
bounded, with many positions simply unthinkable.
Consider just one of Chomsky’s examples: how the
U.S. media treated the 1990 Nicaraguan elections. Af-
ter years of US-sponsored Contra attacks on “soft tar-
gets” like health centers and schools, after an economic
embargo that had caused millions of dollars in dam-
ages, and after a threat by the US government that all
this would continue if their favored party did not win,
it was clear what the result of the elections would be.
Nevertheless, the vast majority of the mainstream press
discussed these elections as if they were a free expres-
sion of the will of the Nicaraguan people. At the liberal
extreme of the mainstream discussion, Tom Wicker of
the
New York Times
recognized that the Sandinistas lost
“because the Nicaraguan people were tired of war and
sick of economic deprivation,” but concluded that the
elections were “free and fair” and untainted by coercion.
For details on mechanisms that distort media, see
the bubble
Propaganda in a Free Press
.
Why is the confinement of discussion within the
bounds of elite ideology necessary? Chomsky attributes
this to the relative freedom of thought and expression
available in Western capitalist democracies: “
Since the
state lacks the capacity to ensure obedience by force,
thought can lead to action and therefore the threat
to order must be excised at the source.
” So typical
Media as profitable businesses:
To make money, major media outlets have to
‘sell’ audiences to advertisers; the more
privileged the audience the better the advertis-
ing rates. Chomsky notes “
It would hardly
come as a surprise if the picture of the
world they present were to reflect the
perspectives and interests of the sellers,
the buyers, and the product
” … the product
being audiences willing and able to spend big.
There are other filters, like the need for a
steady flow of news, which government and
business are happy to provide in the form of
press conferences and “experts”. These
interact with instances of journalistic self-
censorship, and with ‘flak’ directed to-
wards media elements that fall out of line,
to form a sophisticated propaganda
system with little overt censorship, yet
with an effective range of mainstream
opinion and debate as narrow as any
totalitarian system.
Chomsky stresses that this model
is not a ‘conspiracy theory.’
Rather, it is an analysis of the
behavior of the major media
based on their ‘automatic’
institutional structure in the
context of contemporary
capitalism.
,
DECEMBER 1998AGENDA7
For Your Leaders’ Eyes only ...
Chomsky calls attention
to this 1948 top-secret
report (PPS 23) by
George Kennan, head of
the State Dept Policy
Planning Staff after
World War II.
It emphasizes the
importance of the
Fifth Freedom.
(“50% of the world’s
wealth” refers to
global holdings from
colonialism and
bounty from WWII.)
for what they are, there is a chance that the better parts
of human nature—cooperation, solidarity, compassion;
perhaps reflected somewhere in a shared moral sys-
tem—could come to the fore. (For the record, Chomsky
cautions that his remarks about possible connections
between the linguistic/philosophical sense in which he
speaks of ‘human nature’, and the political sense of his
use of the term, are “speculative and sketchy.”)
There is another assumption lurking here, one that
Chomsky has referred to as an “instinct for freedom”
possibly latent in human nature. Chomsky’s concep-
tion of this instinct is similar to the 19
th
-century Rus-
sian anarchist Bakunin’s idea that “liberty … consists
in the full development of all the material, intellectual
and moral powers that are latent in each person; lib-
erty … recognizes no restrictions other than those de-
termined by the laws of our own individual nature…”
(cited in “Notes on Anarchism”, Chomsky’s Introduc-
tion to Daniel Guerin’s
Anarchism: From Theory to
Practice
, 1970). In Chomsky’s view, this instinct for
freedom has driven struggles for justice throughout his-
tory, and can lead to a more just society today, if social
movements undertake concerted action and education,
including helping people acquire the means of intel-
lectual self-defense.
How does one know, however, that any of these
assumptions are correct? Is it, for Chomsky, simply a
matter of faith? He states “
I don’t have faith that the
truth will prevail if it becomes known, but we have
no alternative to proceeding on that assumption,
whatever its credibility may be.
” His treatment of
the question of human freedom is similar: “
On the is-
sue of human freedom, if you assume that there’s
no hope, you guarantee that there will be no hope.
”
However, if you assume that such a thing as an instinct
for freedom exists, then hope may be justified, and it
may be possible to build a better world. Chomsky
notes,“
That’s
your
choice.
”
Chomsky’s work in linguistics, philosophy, politi-
cal and social analysis throughout the 70 years of his
life does not leave readers with many comfortable an-
swers or cherished assumptions about the way the world
works. But for those who seriously consider his per-
spective (with a necessary degree of intellectual self-
defense), it is not clear that this is the only way things
can be. Chomsky’s contribution, perhaps, lies not in
an enumeration of exact blueprints for “the” just fu-
ture society, or for “the” final theory of the mind; but
in his elaboration of possibilities that people can—and
should—strive for.
threat of communism was the economic transformation
of the communist powers “
in ways that reduce their
willingness and ability to complement the industrial
economies of the West
” (cited in
The Chomsky Reader,
p. 251). So, according to Chomsky, U.S. anti-commu-
nism is not provoked by the real crimes committed by
the governments of the ‘communist’ states, but rather
by their unwillingness to subordinate their economies
to the industrial Western economies. He notes that the
term ‘communism’, when used in U.S. propaganda, is
largely a technical term that has “
little relation to so-
cial, political or economic doctrines but a great deal
to do with a proper understanding of one’s duties
and function in the global system
” as defined by the
U.S. (
On Power and Ideology
, p. 10).
Chomsky has taken on another fundamental belief
related to the Fifth Freedom—the idea that the U.S.
government seeks free markets. He repeatedly points
out the importance of military spending to the strength
and structure of the U.S. economy, not primarily for
the benefit of military industry, but as a system of state
intervention in the economy. This intervention,
Chomsky maintains, sustains research and development
in key sectors of the economy, (such as aircraft, elec-
tronics, computers and the internet, and more recently,
biotechnology)—paid for by taxpayer subsidy through
the Pentagon system, including NASA, the Department
of Energy, and other government agencies—until re-
sults of the research become profitable. At this point,
research “spinoffs” begin to produce revenue for pri-
vate corporations. He cites articles from the business
press in the early days after World War II, when this
system of “public subsidy, private profit” was devel-
oped in its current form. The business world then rec-
ognized that advanced industry “cannot satisfactorily
exist in a pure, competitive, unsubsidized, ‘free enter-
prise’ economy,” and that “the government is their only
possible savior” (cited in
Powers and Prospects
, p.
122). He also notes the hugely protectionist measures
of the U.S. and the other industrial powers that, ac-
cording to the World Bank, reduce the national income
of the Third World by twice the amount of official ‘de-
velopmental assistance’ (
Year 501
, p. 106). Only the
weak, both domestically and internationally, are to be
subjected to free market discipline; the rich profit
through the corporate welfare of Newt Gingrich’s
‘nanny state’ (See
Year 501
, Ch. 4,
Powers and Pros-
pects
, Ch. 5).
What Can Be Done?
It can be unpleasant to learn of crimes committed by
one’s government and to learn of the apologetics of
respected commentators. Reading Chomsky, or listen-
ing to him speak, is often an ordeal. Undergone as a
course in “intellectual self-defense” (see bubble), how-
ever, it can be a helpful means to constructive action.
If Chomsky’s philosophy of the mind and human
nature is near correct (see “Chomsky on Language”
on the next page), there is an innate human nature with
separate subcomponents for language and other aspects
of cognition. Perhaps another part of the human mind
is some fixed system of moral principles (with some
principles being variable, in order to accommodate
cross-cultural differences). Chomsky’s assumption
about the value of intellectual self-defense would seem
to be made sounder if this view can be supported. If
so, one could say that obvious cases of atrocities and
oppression are not opposed just because one is taught
that they are bad, but also because such crimes go
against at least certain aspects of an innate human moral
system. And if the actions of the powerful are revealed
R
Intellectual Self-Defense
We must adopt towards the power of government, media, schools, universities and other dominant institutions in our society
“the same
rational, critical stance that we take towards the institutions of any other power”
, even in an ‘enemy state.’
“It’s got to get to the point where
it’s like a reflex to read the first page of the L.A. Times and to count the lies and distortions and to put it into some sort of rational framework.”
Media sources that are somewhat independent from corporate control (often called ‘alternative media’) can help construct this framework, though of course no
source should be embraced uncritically. Challenging the propaganda system is hard work, but can be made easier and more meaningful in cooperation with
social movements, if one minimizes the splendid opportunities for isolation that our ‘society’ provides—each person an atom of consumption alone in
front of the TV or computer screen.
Chomsky sees intellectual self-defense as leading normal people to dissent from and resist state crimes. If people really
knew what corporate capital and their government were up to, both at home and abroad, they would not
stand for it and something would have to change.
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